In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:BOOK REVIEWS 119 alienated, as a result of their doctrines, a large segment of the Islamic community. As a matter of fact the mu'tazilites were branded as infidels by the community. The remainder of the book, i.e. chapters 4, 5, and 6, are respectively devoted to the expected deliverer, the emphasis on struggle (jihad) and the friends of god. The essays concerning the expected deliverer and the friends of (...) god are philosophically uninteresting, except I should add for some of the editor's commentaries. However the essays on struggle are illuminating, for they attempt to clear some of the standard misconceptions about the use of the term "jih~d," which is usually translated into English as "holy war." No doubt the early Muslims did engage in holy wars. The underlying justification for waging such a war was primarily for self-defense and secondarily for strengthening Islam. However the modern interpretation of fihad is in striking contrast to the traditional one. A modern writer expresses it as: It (jih~d) denotes a state of mind in which after undergoing sufferings, a man is forced to resort in self-defense to measures not necessarily warlike. In daily life we find people saying that they wish to carry on a ]ihad against drinking and smoking or against foreign goods. But this does not mean that they intend making a war on anybody.... It [i.e. fih~d] is an institution which enjoins on every Muslim to sacrifice his all for the protection of the weak and oppressed. He is duty bound to see that oppression and injustice, in whatever form, are stopped. (p. 300) As I indicated earlier this book is unlike many others dealing with Islamic civilization. What is needed now is for Western philosophers to start seriously entertaining some of the philosophical themes in the intellectual development of Islam. This is indeed a neglected area; hopefully then Themes o[ Islamic Civilization could be a starting point for some of us in philosophy. ROBERT ELIAS ABU SHANAB The Florida Stale University, Tallahassee Inventaire de la correspondance d'Andrd Rivet (1595-1650). By Paul Dibon. (La Haye: Nijhoff, 1971. xxiii and 406 pp., FI. 90) The French protestant A. Rivet (1572-1651), a confidant of La Tr6moille and of Duplessis-Mornay, was appointed professor of theology at Leyden University in 1620, immediately after the Dordrecht Synod. In 1632 he was appointed tutor to the Prince of Orange, the future William II, and was an advisor to the Stathouder FredericHenry. He maintained a lively correspondence with more than 450 personalities in the learned world, without regard to religion or nationality. Notable among his correspondents are Louis Cappel, Valentin Conrart, Jean Daille, Samuel Desmarets, Charles Drelincourt, Paul Ferry, Pierre Gouhier, J. F. Gronovius, C. Huygens, J.-M. de Langle, Antoine L~ger, Mersenne, Andr~ Pineau, Abraham Rambour, Guillaume Rivet (his brother), Claude de Saumaise, Philippe Vincent, G.-J. Vossius, David Willem. The correspondence, starting in 1595, includes about 4,350 letters, of which only 480 have hitherto been published. Topics of the correspondence are recently published books, diplomatic, political, and military events, ideological disputes, etc. Through his connections, Rivet received a considerable amount of qualified and, frequently confidential information, and this is an invaluable source for the study of the intellectual and political history of his time. Rivet published about sixty books, sermons, and pamphlets, in Latin and in French, mostly on theological subjects. The most important were collected in his 120 HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY Opera theologica quae latine edidit, 3 vols. (Roterodami, 1651-1660). His religious polemics with Amyrault and Grofius were famous. Paul Dibon, professor at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, is the most prominent contemporary historian of seventeenth-century Dutch philosophy and intellectual life; he is perfectly aware of the fact that genuine history can only be founded on solid erudition, and this inventory is a first-class contribution to it. Only those who ignore the difficulties of this kind of research will underestimate the enormous effort it involves--an effort which is, much more than a pedantic and mechanical listing of data, a kind of venatio, requiring a continuous alertness, a surprising amount of imagination and intelligence, a... (shrink)

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is one of the most deadly and costly chronic diseases in the world characterized by many breathing problems. The management of COPD and the prevention of exacerbations are a priority goals to improve the quality of life in patients affected by this illness. In addition, it is also crucial to improve the patients’ adherence to care which, in turn, depends on their knowledge and understanding of some factors such as the prescribed medical treatment, changes in (...) dailylife, and the process of breathing. In turn, the adherence to care leads to greater autonomy for the patient who is thus able to better manage his illness. Here we presented the application of the Model IARA in patients affected by COPD in order to achieve their autonomy in illness management which, in turn, leads to a better quality of life. IARA is an intervention program which improve the awareness and knowledge of patients with respect to both the disease and symptoms through health education. Moreover, through IARA the patients are encouraged to become more actively involved in COPD care process, also regarding drug therapy adherence. Using St. George's Respiratory Questionnaire combined with qualitative analysis, we demonstrated that IARA could be considered a useful approach in COPD management. (shrink)

Research suggests that sedentary behavior is negatively associated with cognitive outcomes. Interrupting prolonged sitting has been shown to improve cognitive functions, including executive functioning, which is important for academic performance. No research has been conducted on the effect of standing on EF in VET students, who make up a large proportion of the adolescent population and who are known to sit more than other students of this age. In this study, we investigated the acute effects of reducing SB by short (...) time standing on EF in vocational education and training students. In a randomized crossover study, 165 VET students were first taught for 15 min in seated position. After this, they performed while seated the Letter Memory Test for updating, and the Color Shape Test for shifting and inhibition. Students were randomly assigned to a sitting or standing condition. All students were taught again for 15 min and then took the same tests in the condition they were allocated to, respectively, standing or seated. After 1 week, the test procedure was repeated, in which students switched conditions. Mixed model analyses showed no significant effect of sitting or standing on updating, shifting, or inhibition. Also, no significant differences were found for the order of condition on updating, shifting, or inhibition. Our results suggest that 40 min of standing does not significantly influence EF among VET students. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:BOOK REVIEWS 487 61oign6 de Locke, qui a fait entrer les math6matiques dans la logique, il est leur successeur attitr6. II a 6pous6 une doctrine pacifiste encore plus imp6rative que celle de Voltaire. N'a-t-il pas lui aussi cherch6 a cultiver son jardin pour en faire un paradis terrestre, et ce n'est certes pas sa faute ni celle de la raison humaine sice paradis s'estompe darts un avenir toujours plus (...) 61oign6 pour n'~tre en d6finitive qu'un mirage. P. Gay qui est ~t sa fa~on un bon disciple de Locke est un pragmatiste plus qu'un rationaliste. Le programme des philosophes n'Stait pas seulement raisonnable, il ~tait pratique. MSme si ceux-ci se sonl: paffois montr6s, ridicules pour avoir m~connu la grande part de l'irrationnel daus l'esprit humain, ils ont du moins le m~rite d'avoir fair appel au bon sens de la collectivit6, ce bon sens qui fondait route la m6thode de Descartes. Pour P. Gay, comme pour les hommes du xvm e sidle, le philosophe est avant tout le sage et le savant, l'homme de bien et le citoyen, tel qu'il est dit daus l'Encyclopddie. C'est le "militaire phflosophe" dont l'auteur est inconnu, le "philosophe ignorant" de Voltaire, le "philosophe sans le savoir" de Sedaine. Une nouvelle conception de l'homme se fait jour, celle d'un 8tre ~ la lois rationnel et sensible. Par derriere de nombreux avatars se retrouve une philosophic g6n~rale commune: celle de Locke et de Condillac, de Hume, d'Helv6tius et de Diderot, celle-l~t m6me qu'E. C.assirer a su mettre en lumi~re en insistant sur son c6t6 formel, et que le philosophe sovi6tique J. Luppol a quelque peu fauss6e par une interpr6tation marxiste et par trop dogrnatique de l'histoire. Elle s'exprime clairement dans le Discours pr~lirninaire de d'Alembert. Le sensationnalisme a promu l'id~e de la souverainet~ de l'esprit critique et par l~t m~me a r6pudi6 la toute-puissance de la Raison. La nouvelle m6thode pr6conis ~e permet une dialectique nouvelle, qui est pr~cis6ment celle de l'homme moderne. EUe entraine une conception diff6rente du monde et de l'homme, une interpretation nouvelle de leurs rapports. La psychologie est amen~e ~ faire ses premiers pas en tant que science; mais c'est une analyse impitoyable du moi profond en marge d'une exploration de la vie sociale et du monde ext~rieur qui a fray6 la voie ~t la modernitY, et nous a donn~ le sentiment de notre libertY. C'est ainsi qu'il convient de faire entrer le Rousseau des Confessions aussi bien que du Contrat social dans la grande famille d~sunie qui fait le sujet du livre de P. Gay. Pour nous, en nous pla~ant ~t un point de rue quelque peu different de celui de notre auteur, et tout en reconnaissant avec lui que le dix-huiti~me si~cle a port~ une atteinte mortelle ~ la m~taphysique, nous croyons pouvoir dire que le dix-huiti~me si~cle n'est pas tant le si~cle qui a reni~ Dieu, mais le si~cle qui s'en est fait une conception plus moderne en le repoussant darts un pass~ lointain et t~n~breux ou en le situant, non sans ivresse, darts un avenir tr~s incertain. R. NIKLAUS Exeter, England La Filosofia Politica di Schelling. By Claudio Cesa. (Bari, Laterza, 1969. Pp. 252. n.p.) Was Schelling an original political philosopher? This does not seem to be the opinion of the author of this very careful research, which is beyond any doubt the 488 HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY most extensive study of this aspect of Schelling's thought, at least until 1806. However, even if Schelling was not, as it is frequently stated, indifferent to the problems and the vicissitudes of politics, his theoretical thinking on this subject never went beyond temporary systematizations, to be given up, or modified, after a while. The author shows how Schelling, especially in this fieM, was influenced either by his environment in general, or by some personalities he happened to contact: first... (shrink)

In this paper we consider an intuitionistic variant of the modal logic S4 (which we call IS4). The novelty of this paper is that we place particular importance on the natural deduction formulation of IS4— our formulation has several important metatheoretic properties. In addition, we study models of IS4— not in the framework of Kirpke semantics, but in the more general framework of category theory. This allows not only a more abstract definition of a whole class of models but also (...) a means of modelling proofs as well as provability. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:BOOK REVIEWS 487 61oign6 de Locke, qui a fait entrer les math6matiques dans la logique, il est leur successeur attitr6. II a 6pous6 une doctrine pacifiste encore plus imp6rative que celle de Voltaire. N'a-t-il pas lui aussi cherch6 a cultiver son jardin pour en faire un paradis terrestre, et ce n'est certes pas sa faute ni celle de la raison humaine sice paradis s'estompe darts un avenir toujours plus (...) 61oign6 pour n'~tre en d6finitive qu'un mirage. P. Gay qui est ~t sa fa~on un bon disciple de Locke est un pragmatiste plus qu'un rationaliste. Le programme des philosophes n'Stait pas seulement raisonnable, il ~tait pratique. MSme si ceux-ci se sonl: paffois montr6s, ridicules pour avoir m~connu la grande part de l'irrationnel daus l'esprit humain, ils ont du moins le m~rite d'avoir fair appel au bon sens de la collectivit6, ce bon sens qui fondait route la m6thode de Descartes. Pour P. Gay, comme pour les hommes du xvm e sidle, le philosophe est avant tout le sage et le savant, l'homme de bien et le citoyen, tel qu'il est dit daus l'Encyclopddie. C'est le "militaire phflosophe" dont l'auteur est inconnu, le "philosophe ignorant" de Voltaire, le "philosophe sans le savoir" de Sedaine. Une nouvelle conception de l'homme se fait jour, celle d'un 8tre ~ la lois rationnel et sensible. Par derriere de nombreux avatars se retrouve une philosophic g6n~rale commune: celle de Locke et de Condillac, de Hume, d'Helv6tius et de Diderot, celle-l~t m6me qu'E. C.assirer a su mettre en lumi~re en insistant sur son c6t6 formel, et que le philosophe sovi6tique J. Luppol a quelque peu fauss6e par une interpr6tation marxiste et par trop dogrnatique de l'histoire. Elle s'exprime clairement dans le Discours pr~lirninaire de d'Alembert. Le sensationnalisme a promu l'id~e de la souverainet~ de l'esprit critique et par l~t m~me a r6pudi6 la toute-puissance de la Raison. La nouvelle m6thode pr6conis ~e permet une dialectique nouvelle, qui est pr~cis6ment celle de l'homme moderne. EUe entraine une conception diff6rente du monde et de l'homme, une interpretation nouvelle de leurs rapports. La psychologie est amen~e ~ faire ses premiers pas en tant que science; mais c'est une analyse impitoyable du moi profond en marge d'une exploration de la vie sociale et du monde ext~rieur qui a fray6 la voie ~t la modernitY, et nous a donn~ le sentiment de notre libertY. C'est ainsi qu'il convient de faire entrer le Rousseau des Confessions aussi bien que du Contrat social dans la grande famille d~sunie qui fait le sujet du livre de P. Gay. Pour nous, en nous pla~ant ~t un point de rue quelque peu different de celui de notre auteur, et tout en reconnaissant avec lui que le dix-huiti~me si~cle a port~ une atteinte mortelle ~ la m~taphysique, nous croyons pouvoir dire que le dix-huiti~me si~cle n'est pas tant le si~cle qui a reni~ Dieu, mais le si~cle qui s'en est fait une conception plus moderne en le repoussant darts un pass~ lointain et t~n~breux ou en le situant, non sans ivresse, darts un avenir tr~s incertain. R. NIKLAUS Exeter, England La Filosofia Politica di Schelling. By Claudio Cesa. (Bari, Laterza, 1969. Pp. 252. n.p.) Was Schelling an original political philosopher? This does not seem to be the opinion of the author of this very careful research, which is beyond any doubt the 488 HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY most extensive study of this aspect of Schelling's thought, at least until 1806. However, even if Schelling was not, as it is frequently stated, indifferent to the problems and the vicissitudes of politics, his theoretical thinking on this subject never went beyond temporary systematizations, to be given up, or modified, after a while. The author shows how Schelling, especially in this fieM, was influenced either by his environment in general, or by some personalities he happened to contact: first... (shrink)

BackgroundFor many decades, the debate on children’s competence to give informed consent in medical settings concentrated on ethical and legal aspects, with little empirical underpinnings. Recently, data from empirical research became available to advance the discussion. It was shown that children’s competence to consent to clinical research could be accurately assessed by the modified MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool for Clinical Research. Age limits for children to be deemed competent to decide on research participation have been studied: generally children of 11.2 (...) years and above were decision-making competent, while children of 9.6 years and younger were not. Age was pointed out to be the key determining factor in children’s competence. In this article we reflect on policy implications of these findings, considering legal, ethical, developmental and clinical perspectives.DiscussionAlthough assessment of children’s competence has a normative character, ethics, law and clinical practice can benefit from research data. The findings may help to do justice to the capacities children possess and challenges they may face when deciding about treatment and research options. We discuss advantages and drawbacks of standardized competence assessment in children on a case-by-case basis compared to application of a fixed age limit, and conclude that a selective implementation of case-by-case competence assessment in specific populations is preferable. We recommend the implementation of age limits based on empirical evidence. Furthermore, we elaborate on a suitable model for informed consent involving children and parents that would do justice to developmental aspects of children and the specific characteristics of the parent-child dyad.SummaryPrevious research outcomes showed that children’s medical decision-making capacities could be operationalized into a standardized assessment instrument. Recommendations for policies include a dual consent procedure, including both child as well as parents, for children from the age of 12 until they reach majority. For children between 10 and 12 years of age, and in case of children older than 12 years in special research populations of mentally compromised patients, we suggest a case-by-case assessment of children’s competence to consent. Since such a dual consent procedure is fundamentally different from a procedure of parental permission and child assent, and would imply a considerable shift regarding some current legislations, practical implications are elaborated. (shrink)

Intuitionistically. a set has to be given by a finite construction or by a construction-project generating the elements of the set in the course of time. Quantification is only meaningful if the range of each quantifier is a well-circumscribed set. Thinking upon the meaning of quantification, one is led to insights?in particular, the so-called continuity principles?which are surprising from a classical point of view. We believe that such considerations lie at the basis of Brouwer?s reconstruction of mathematics. The predicate ?α (...) is lawless? is not acceptable, the lawless sequences do not form a well-circumscribed intuitionistic set, and quantification over lawless sequences does not make sense. (shrink)

C'est au tournant du XIXe siècle que les représentations de la jeunesse féminine italienne commencent à se croiser autour de nouveaux concepts et de nouvelles disciplines.Cet article décrit l'émergence des multiples visages de la « nouvelle jeune fille » italienne à partir des codes d'appellation et d'une plus grande mobilité dans l'appartenance aux classes d'âge juvéniles. C'est la convergence de plusieurs éléments de transformation socio-culturelle qui, dans les années 1920, est à l'origine de la naissance de la « Jeunesse féminine (...) catholique » italienne, que l'auteur examine comme lieu emblématique, entre traditions et innovations, des modèles et des normes de la formation des signorine italiennes. (shrink)

The Dutch policy objective of a fully sustainable livestock sector without mutilations by 2023 is not compatible with the routine practice of tail docking to minimize the risk of tail biting. To examine farmer attitudes towards docking, a telephone survey was conducted among 487 conventional and 33 organic Dutch pig farmers. “Biting” (of tails, ears, or limbs) was identified by the farmers as a main welfare problem in pig farming. About half of the farmers reported to have no tail biting (...) problems in their own herd. When farmers did report problems, they most often reported figures between 1 and 5 % of the animals. High incidences of tail biting were anticipated when trying to keep undocked pigs. Enrichment materials used in the conventional sector included mainly chains (52–63 % of the farms) and hanging rubber or plastic balls (22–30 %). Straw, sawdust, or wood shavings was hardly provided in conventional pig farming (2–3 %), in contrast to organic farming (88–100 % of farms). Conventional pig farmers feel a curly tail is not very important for sustainable pig farming. They consider enrichment to be less effective and tail docking to be less stressful for them and their piglets than their organic colleagues do. Pig farmers identified climate as a main risk factor for tail biting as opposed to enrichment. The objective of reducing routine tail docking requires solutions for dealing with tail biting problems at the farm level. In this process, transfer of scientific knowledge about enrichment materials and other measures to prevent and cure tail biting is critical, as is a change in farmer attitudes and awareness of the moral issues involved. (shrink)

Is there ever any reason for a doctor to lie to a patient? In this paper, we critically review the literature on lying to patients and challenge the common notion that while lying is unacceptable, a related entity--'benevolent deception' is defensible. Further, we outline a rare circumstance when treating psychotic patients where lying to the patient is justified. This circumstance is illustrated by a clinical vignette.

C'est au tournant du XIXe siècle que les représentations de la jeunesse féminine italienne commencent à se croiser autour de nouveaux concepts et de nouvelles disciplines.Cet article décrit l'émergence des multiples visages de la « nouvelle jeune fille » italienne à partir des codes d'appellation et d'une plus grande mobilité dans l'appartenance aux classes d'âge juvéniles. C'est la convergence de plusieurs éléments de transformation socio-culturelle qui, dans les années 1920, est à l'origine de la naissance de la « Jeunesse féminine (...) catholique » italienne, que l'auteur examine comme lieu emblématique, entre traditions et innovations, des modèles et des normes de la formation des signorine italiennes. (shrink)

We distinguish three different readings of the intuitionistic notions of validity, soundness, and completeness with respect to the quantification occurring in the notion of validity, and we establish certain relations between the different readings. For each of the meta-logical notions considered we suggest that the “most natural” reading (which is not the same for all cases) is precisely the one which is required by the recent intuitionistic completeness theorems for IPC.

Bazzocchi disposes the text of the Tractatus in a user-friendly manner, exactly as Wittgenstein's decimals advise. This discloses the logical form of the book by distinct reading units, linked into a fashioned hierarchical tree. The text becomes much clearer and every reader can enjoy, finally, its formal and literary qualities.

Depending on what one means by the main connective of logic, the -if..., then... -, several systems of logic result: classic and modal logics, intuitionistic logic or relevance logic. This book presents the underlying ideas, the syntax and the semantics of these logics. Soundness and completeness are shown constructively and in a uniform way. Attention is paid to the interdisciplinary role of logic: its embedding in the foundations of mathematics and its intimate connection with philosophy, in particular the philosophy of (...) language. Set theory is presented both as a conditio sine qua non for logic and as a interesting exact ontology. The study of infinite sets yields perplexing results. Formalization of informal number theory results in formal number theory; Godel's incompleteness is treated. At appropriate places attention is paid to paradoxes, intuitionism, conditionals, the historical development of logic, to logic programming and automated theorem proving for classical logic.". (shrink)